In early and
late Vedic period, Aryans moved slowly towards Kosala (Ayodhya) and Videha
(Mithila) after conquering the aboriginals. The entire region is also referred
as “east of Aryavrata” and corresponds to central and eastern Uttar Pradesh,
north Bihar and Terai belt of Nepal. The famous epic Ramayana refers about
Prince Rama of Kosala going into matrimonial alliance with Princess Sita of
Mithila and therefore indicating towards good settlement of Indo-Aryans by
1500-1200 BC in these regions. Even before the arrival of these Vedic – Aryans,
the hilly areas of the north were already populated by Khasa tribes who are
classified as pre-Vedic Aryans. The tribes got control over these regions by
defeating Kirata people of the Mongoloid race. Slowly Khasas were influenced by
the Kirata culture and became culturally different than Vedic Aryans of the
latter lot. It, therefore, led to their classification as degraded Kshatriyas
by orthodox Aryans of Kuru-Panchala [1]. With the arrival of Vedic Aryans and much celebrated Ikshvaku
Kshatriyas, good advancement was seen in Vedic culture in the entire stretch
spread from Kosala to Mithila. On the political front, the entire region saw
the emergence and coexistence of monarchs such as Kasi, Kosala and Magadha with
small republics known as Sangha or Gana. The details of the republics are
preserved in the Buddhist and Jain texts. It consisted the Shakyas of
Kapilvastu, the Mallas of Pava and Kusinara, the Koliyas of Ramagrama, the
Mauriyas of Pipphalivana, the Bulis of Allakapa, the Lichchhavis of Vaishali,
the Videhas of Mithila, the Kalingas of Resaputta and the Bhaggas of Sumsumara
hill. The republics derived their name after the epithet of ruling tribe. In
all republics, the Mallas were earlier monarchy and formed one of the Solasa
Mahajanpada of ancient India. They shifted to the democratic way sometime
during the lifetime of Gautam Buddha with twin capitals at Pava and Kusinara. Further,
the first five republics listed above existed on the territories that can be
roughly given as the early Gorakhpur province of British India including some
Terai belt of Nepal. In all republics of ancient India, the Lichchhavis of
Vaishali has been credited for introducing the advanced style of democratic
governance in the subcontinent. On the social front, some of these republics
were responsible for bringing major revolutions in human evolution process with
respect to changes in its social and religious behaviors after birth of Buddha,
Mahavira in it and support given to their cult.
2.1. The
Videhas of Mithila
The etymology of word Videha is related to King
Videha Madhava, who settled in the area when Aryans moved further east to
Kosala in the early Vedic period. The capital of Videhas was Mithila. According
to Bhavisya Purana, the capital was named after King Mithi who founded the
beautiful city near Tirhut, a piece of land named so as it is surrounded by
three rivers namely Gandak, Kosi and Ganga. Since Mithi founded the city, he
was famously known as Janaka and his dynasty as Janaka Dynasty. Contrary to
this, Mahagovinda Suttanta of the Digha Nikaya traces the foundation of the
city from Govinda. Videha was one of the strongest and earliest settlements of
Aryans in the eastern region. It is therefore featured in folk tales of
Ramayana, Mahabharata and in Brahmna texts too. Ramayana refers about the
country when Rama entered into matrimonial alliance with Vaidehi (Sita /
Maithili), the daughter of Raja Seeradhwaja who was 21st Janaka of Mithila.
Mahabharata mentions about the country when Videha prince participated in the
swayamvara of Draupadi and when Bhima conquered them during Rajasuya yajna of
Yudhisthra. Buddhist texts refer them as one of the eight important clans
forming Vajjian confederacy. Jaina texts hold the place as the birthplace of
Vardhmana Mahavira as he has been referred as ‘a Videha, son of Videhadatta, a
native of Videha, a prince of Videha….’. According to the texts, Mahavira spent
his first thirty years in Videha till his parents died.
The country
of Videha was very much advanced in the Vedic culture. King Janaka received
Brahmavidya (atmavidya) from sage Yagnavalkya; the author of Yagnavalkya
Samhita. There were discussions held in the courts of Janaka about supreme
Brahman and sages from Kuru-Panchalas and Madra countries used to participate.
Satapatha Brahmna clearly directs that the great intellectual and spiritual
lead offered by Samrat Janaka and sage Yagnavalkya has to be accepted by the
inhabitants of Aryan occupied regions. The Kings of Videha participated in the
Vedic yajnas and Jataka texts reveal about goat sacrifices during such yajnas.
Till the time of Buddha, Videha rose as one of the important trading centers.
It witnessed a republican form of government whose chief was called Raja.
Chanakya of Mauryan Empire refers the country as part of the Vajjian
confederacy whose members lived with the title Raja. The Videhas had their
assembly point, Santhagara, where the head of each Kshatriya family met to
decide on various social and political issues. The territory of Videha in
present time can be given as northern Bihar and parts of southern Nepal. Its
capital Mithila is now identified with Janakpur which is situated in southern
Nepal and is 35 miles north-west of the city of Vaishali.
2.2 The
Mallas of Kusinara and Pava
The literary meaning of “Mall / Malla” in Sanskrit
is “wrestler”. In early Vedic sources, the word is used only in the sense of
professional wrestlers and not for any tribe. It therefore indicates absence of
any such tribe by that period. Based on the epic descriptions, it is claimed
that this group of warrior Aryans arrived in the region after Videha lot of
Aryans were already settled. They were known as Malla after the epithet of
their King Chandraketu alias Malla. Valmiki Ramayana traces the origin of first
Malla as the son of Lakshmana. According to commentary in it, the first
ancestor of Lakshmana’s family was Ikshvaku. The 26th descendant of Ikshvaku was
King Dashratha. He had four sons namely Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata and
Shatrughana. In the later part of life, Rama divided the entire kingdom in his
sons and nephews. In the arrangement, the two sons of Bharata got the country
of Gandhara situated on the banks of River Siddha. The elder son Taksha made
capital as Takshshila [2]. The younger son Pushkara made capital as Pushkavali [3]. The territory of Satvato near River
Yamuna, acquired by Shatrughana after defeating Lavanasura, was given to his
two sons Subahu and Sharasene. Both made their capital as Madhuvan, now known
as Mathura [4]. The eastern part of Kosala was given to Angad and
Chandraketu, the two sons of Lakshmana. Angad got the place of Karupath which
can be given as the eastern part of Basti and the western part of Gorakhpur
district. The younger brother Chandraketu got the place of east of Karupath. He
settled there with capital as Chandrakanta. As Chandraketu was a master in wrestling,
he was given an epithet of ‘Malla’ by Lakshmana. Valmiki Ramayana, therefore,
refers Chandrakanta as Malla – Rashtra or Malla – Bhumi too [5]. The
two sons of Rama, Kush and Lava, were given the place of Kushavati and
Sharavati respectively. Kushavati was located at the end of the eastern part of
Karupath and now known as Kushinagar or Kasia. The place of Lava, Sharavati,
was near to Kushavati but it cannot be located in present time. Although this
arrangement ran for some time, Kush got the added responsibility of Ayodhya
after death of Rama. For a few years, he ruled over Kosala from Kushavati but
returned back with Lava on request of the people of Ayodhya. While Kush settled
in Ayodhya, Lava settled near to it with capital at Sravasti. The development
resulted in Chandraketu getting control over entire eastern part of Kosala. Now
the territory under him also included eastern Gorakhpur, Kushinagar and part of
Deoria district of Uttar Pradesh with River Sadanira (Big Gandak) forming its
eastern boundary. Chandraketu later shifted his capital to Kusavati and
his descendants ruled over the entire region for coming years.
Though
legends relate Malla title to be originated from Chandraketu of Ramayana period
but it is clear that the word was used for warrior Aryan population who
migrated from Kosala and started ruling over the eastern part of Kosala in the
early Vedic period. It is evident from Mahabharata (VI.9.46) which mentions
Mallas as eastern tribes along with Angas, Vangas and Kalingas (the residents
of Bengal and Orissa). It further mentions the country as Malla-rashtra
(VI.9.34) and shows Bhima conquers the Malla King during Rajysuya yajna of
Yudhisthra at Indraprashta (II.30.3). As they were conquered, the Malla King
participated in the Mahabharata war from the Pandava’s side, though no casualty
of either King or Prince is reported [6]. By the end of
the late Vedic period, Malla territory rose to prominence as monarch. Buddhist
text Anguttara Nikaya refers it as one of the Solasa Mahajanpada of ancient
India. During the lifetime of Buddha, the country divided in two parts with
capitals at Pava and Kusinara. The governance too shifted to republican way
with Kshatriya assemblies (Santhagara) taking all social and political
decisions. Buddhaghosa comments that the chief Mallas administered the state
one by one and those who were free from such duties engaged in trade sometimes
undertaking long caravan journeys. Mahaparinirvana Sutra records Buddha’s
enumeration of different Kshatriya assemblies within the Malla territory. It is
recorded that when Buddha arrived at Pava, the Mallas invited him to inaugurate
their assembly hall named Ubbhataka (so called because of its height which was
not long been built). On the other side, the Mallas of Kusinara were having
their own Santhagara. In that Santhagara, the remains of Buddha were honored
for seven days after the cremation. Also, it was the same assembly hall where
the envoys of Magadha, Vaishali, Kapilvastu, Allakappa, Ramagama, Pava and
Pipphalivana were received when they arrived to claim their shares in the
relics of Buddha. Both branches of the Mallas occupied different geographical
areas. Based on their location, they were also referred as ‘Higher (northern)
Mallas’ and ‘Lower (southern) Mallas’. According to Sabha – Parva of
Mahabharata, the Mallas near to Kosala were known as northern Mallas (of Pava)
while those away from it and in the southern direction were known as southern
Mallas (of Kusinara). Although the tribe had two major political centers at
Pava and Kusinara, Jain texts Nirayavali Sutra and Kalpa Sutra talk about nine
Malla republics in the same region indicating presence of smaller political
centers. The nine Malla chiefs (navmallai) along with the nine Lichchhavi
chiefs (navlichchhavi) are mentioned in Jain texts when they instituted the
festival of lights to mark away the passing of Nigantha Nataputta (Mahavira)
and also when they fought jointly with the Magadha Empire. It is also recorded
that during the funeral of Buddha, who died just 2 years after Mahavira, only
eight Malla chiefs (attha mallapamokha) intended to bear his corpse and only
four Malla chiefs (chattaro mallapamokha) proceeded to set the funeral pyre. As
there were total nine political centers, it is speculated that the Mallas of
Pava had five chiefs while the Mallas of Kusinara had four chiefs. It is
interesting to note that all Malla chiefs gave their last respect to Mahavira
but only eight turned for Buddha. It therefore indicates possibility of that
Malla chief, belonging to the Mallas of Pava, being non-follower of Buddha.
The relation
between both branches of Mallas was not good. The separation within them was
clear as both claimed the relics of Buddha and built stupa over it. A Buddhist
tradition preserved in the Tibetan Dulva indicates that after the death of
Buddha, the Mallas of Pava were the first to arrive at Kusinara with their
troops and the words with which they demanded the relics were rude. Though
there were differences, still they lived in peace. With the neighboring
countries of Lichchhavis, Videhas and Nayas too, they were in good relation
except few incidences. One such incidence is when Bandhula Malla along with his
wife Mallika violated the Abhiseka – pokkharani of the Lichchhavis which
resulted in some fighting. With the neighboring monarch of Kosala, the republic
had some tension when King Pasenadi (Sanskrit -Prasenjit) treacherously killed
Bandhula and his sons. Before it, Bandhula was appointed as General of Kosalan
forces by Pasenadi himself due to their friendship which started while studying
at Takshsila. After Bandhula, Pasenadi appointed the former’s nephew
Digha-Karayana as new General of Kosalan forces. Digha-Karayana betrayed the
king to avenge his uncle’s murder and offered the royal insignia to his son
Vidudabha (Sanskrit - Virudhaka). Pasenadi fled and died at the gates of
Rajgriha. It is suggested that some of the Mallas, in order to avenge the death
of Bandhula, aligned themselves with the Vidudabha and achieved their purpose.
The Nirayavalika and other Jaina sources inform that the Mallas along with the
Lichchhavis aligned with the Vajjian confederacy under the leadership of King
Cetaka of Vaishali against King Ajatshatru of monarchical Magadha. However, in
the end, Ajatshatru won the battle and Mallas lost much of their power.
The ruling
tribes of Malla are referred as Suryavanshi Kshatriyas with Vasetthas gotra in
Buddhist and Brahmanic literatures. They find their mention as Mallas in Pali
text, Mallai in Jain Text and Mallakas in Arthasastra by Chanakya where he
refers them as people living with the title Raja. There is mention of nearly
five hundred Malla Rajas (Santhagara members) during the Buddha Period [7]. The tribe had their major settlements at Aniruddhawa, Bhogagamanagara, Sathiawan,
Anupia, Khukhundo, Kahaon and Bhagalpur other than Kusinara and Pava which were
also their capitals [8].
1. Kusinara – The Mallas of Kusinara were known as ‘Kosinarka’ [9]. They are referred as Vasessthas by Aniruddha and Ananda
in the Mahaparinirvana Sutra. The Kosinarka Mallas followed Buddhism at mass
scale. Their Raja, Vajrapani Malla, fell on the ground instantly after hearing
the death of Buddha and died on the spot [10]. Kusinara become a sacred place for all Buddhists after
Buddha took his mahaparinirvana in 483 BC at Shalvan Upaavana situated on the
banks of River Hirannavati (now a small stream called Hirakinari) [11]. In present time the place is known as
Kushinagar / Kasia.
2. Pava – The
Mallas of Pava were known as ‘Paveyyaka-Malla’. In the Sangiti Sutta of Digha
Niakaya, Buddha addressed them as Vasessthas. Pava has been mentioned in detail
in Jain KalpaSutra grantha as it is the same place where Mahavira died while
dwelling in the palace of Sastipala Malla (Hastipala Malla). It is also the
place where Buddha took his last meal at the house of Chund metalsmith. There
is a non-agreement between historians on its location in present time. Some
traced it as Padrauna, Sathiyaon Dih and Fazilnagar in Kushinagar district of
Uttar Pradesh while others traced it as Pavapuri near Rajgriha, Patna of Bihar.
Based on the initial works of historians, the accepted place by Jains is
Pavapuri near Rajgriha. However later historical evidences do not justify its
location to be there. According to Jaina Kalpasutra and Parisista-parvam, Mahavira
attained nirvana in the courtyard of King Hastipala Malla of Pava. These Mallas
became part of Vajji or Lichchhavi sangha of Vaishali while opposing to the
autocratic government of Magadha. The Magadha territory existed in the south of
the Ganges and present Pavapuri is too located on the south of Ganges.
Therefore it is clear that the ancient Pava (of Malla tribe) and present
Pavapuri are historically two different places. Further, the Buddhist texts
Digha Nikaya and Majjihima Nikaya talk about the nirvana of Mahavira in
Majjihima Pava which was three gavutas (approx. 10-20 Km) from Kusinara and
falling near Shakya territory. It is also well recorded that the sick Buddha
reached in the outskirts of Kusinara by evening after having his morning or last
meal at the house of Chunda metalsmith of Pava. It therefore confirms that the
distance between Pava and Kusinara was not long. Based on all these historical
evidences, Pava can be traced to ‘Sathiyaon -Fazilnagar’ in Kusinagar district
and it can be said that its correlation with Pavapuri of Bihar is due to wrong
interpretation of the initial evidences.
3. Anupiya – It was one of the navmalliki situated to the east of Kapilvastu.
Siddharth Gautama came first to Anupiya after crossing the Shakya border. In
the Ambavana (mango grove) of Anupiya, which belonged to the Malla Rajas, he
took his Pravajja. The Malla-Rajas later built a Vihara there for Buddha’s
residence. Anupiya was also the birthplace of Dabba Mallaputra. In present
time, historians trace it as ‘Devgaon and Deurawa’ village of Nepal [12].
4.
Bhogagamanagara - It was another navmalliki of Malla republic situated on the
route of Vaishali to Pava. According to Buddhist texts, the Buddha passed
through Mandagama, Ambagama, Jambugama, Hatthigama and Bhogagamanagara while
making his last journey from Vaishali to Pava. Based on the descriptions, the
place has to be at the border of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar states of India. The
Baduraon village of Uttar Pradesh, famously referred as ‘Buddha Nagar’, is
speculated to be ancient Bhogagamanagara [12].
5. Aniruddhawa - The place is traced in Kushinagar district of Uttar Pradesh
with houses constructed over the site.
6. Khukhundo – Kahon - The town was situated on the route of Kusinara to
Banaras. The villages were Brahmanical and the Chinese traveler Hwen Tswang
mentions about the hospitality of Buddhist Brahmin [13].
Other than
these places, the present Kakradih and Majhauli are also designated as two of
the navmallikis related to the Mallas of Pava by historians like Rahul
Sankrityayan, Dr. Rajbali Pandey and Buddhamitra T.M.B. due to the presence of
strong Malla titled population. While Kakradih, famously referred as ‘Mallai Taluka’
from the time immemorial, is located on the south of the River Ghaghara
(Sarayu) in Mau district of Uttar Pradesh, Majhauli is located in Deoria
district in the same state. However the ancient name of both places in Buddhist
texts cannot be traced.
Based on these findings, the Malla territory is believed to be spread from
Devgaon-Devurwa of Nepal in north till Mau district of Uttar Pradesh in south
covering entire Maharajganj district, Sahjanwa, Barhalganj and border areas of
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The main religion of the majority of the Mallas became
Buddhism by the 5th century BC. It, therefore, led to their classification as
‘Vratya Kshatriyas’ in Manusmiriti. Some historians have traced the legacy of
one section of Malla of Pava with the present Malla titled population of
Kakradih (Natthapur). The legacy of majority Mallas including the Mallas of
Kusinara have been traced to Sainthwar community which also carries the legacy
of other republic Kshatriya tribes of that region. Opposite to these populations,
the legacy of one Mall Raja of Pava, who was non-follower of Buddha, is traced
with the Mallas of Majhauli who are also considered as the head of Bisen
Kshatriyas.
2.3 The Lichchhavis of Vaishali - click here to read
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References:
[1] Bisht, N. S.
& Bankoti, T. S. (2004). Encyclopaedic Ethnography of the Himalayan Tribes,
p. 738. Delhi: Global Vision.
[2] Kapoor, S.
(2004). A Dictionary of Hinduism, p. 394. New Delhi: Cosmo.
[3] Ghose, S.
(2004). Legend of Ram: Antiquity to Janmabhoomi Debate, p. 70. New Delhi:
Bibliophile South Asia & Promilla.
[4] Anthropoligical
Survey of India. (1998). People of India: Rajasthan, Part 2, Vol. XXXVIII. p.
845. (K. S. Singh, Eds.). Mumabi: Popular
Prakashan.
[5] Jain, K. C.
(1972). Malwa through the Ages: From the Earliest Times to 1305 A.D., p. 2.
[6] Mittal, J. P.
(2006). History of Ancient India: From 4250 BC to 637 AD, p. 586. New Delhi:
Atlantic.
[7] Agnihotri, V. K. (2010). Indian History. (26th
Ed.). p. A-171. Mumbai: Allied.
[8] Buddhamitra, T. M. B. (1999).
Bhagwan Buddha ke samkalin anuyayi tatha Buddha Kendra, pp. 140-145,158.
Gorakhpur: Rahul Sankrityayan Sansthan.
[9] Malalsekera,
G. P. (2003). Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, p. 453. New Delhi: Asian
educational Services.
[10] Buddhamitra, T. M. B. (1999). Bhagwan
Buddha ke samkalin anuyayi tatha Buddha Kendra, p. 188. Gorakhpur: Rahul Sankrityayan Sansthan.
[11] Goldberg, K. & Decary, M. (2012). Along the Path:
The Meditator’s Companion to the Buddha’s land. Onalaska: Pariyatti.
[12] Buddhamitra, T. M. B. (1999). Bhagwan
Buddha ke samkalin anuyayi tatha Buddha Kendra, p. 141-142. Gorakhpur: Rahul Sankrityayan Sansthan.
[13] The ancient
Geography of India, Vol I, pp 365, 1963 – By Sir Alexander Cunningham
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Index Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10
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